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There are many versions of the ''Ramayana''. The late A.K.Ramanujan counted 300+ in 1987; and there have been more since, notably the idiosyncratic cartoon film, ''Sita's Blues''.
There are many versions of the ''Ramayana''. The late A.K.Ramanujan counted 300+ in 1987; and there have been more since, notably the idiosyncratic cartoon film, ''Sita's Blues''.
==Bibliography==
Sukumari Bhattacharji, ‘A revaluation of Valmiki's "Rama"’ ''Social Scientist'' 30(1-2), 2002:31-49;
Luis Gonzalez-Reimann, ‘The divinity of Rama in the Ramayana of Valmiki’ ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' 34(3), 2006:203-220;
K.K.Handique, et al., ‘Part 1: The Two Great Epics’ in ''The Cultural Heritage of India. Volume II'' (Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission, rev. 2nd ed., 1962), chapters 1-8; 
Ramdas Lamb, 'Ram' in ''Brill’s encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol.III'', edited by Knut A.Jacobsen (Leiden: Brill, 2011):112-118;
A.K.Ramanujan, ‘Three hundred Ramayanas’ [1987] in ''Many Ramayanas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in South Asia'', edited by Paula Richman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991):22-49
https://300ramayanas.wikispaces.com/ ;
Paula Richman, ‘The diversity of the Ramayana tradition’ in ''Many Ramayanas: the diversity of a narrative tradition in South Asia'', edited by Paula Richman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991):3-21;
Dinesh Sakalani, ‘Questioning the questioning of Ramayanas’ ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'' v85, 2004:51-65;
Geoffrey Samuel, ''The origins of yoga and tantra: Indic religions to the thirteenth century'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008)
==[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/04/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-1-cambodia-.html Ramayana in Southeast Asia]==
Originally composed in India in Sanskrit over two and half thousand years ago by Valmiki, the Ramayana is also one of the most popular masterworks throughout Southeast Asia.  This is reflected not only in the literary traditions, but also in the performing and fine arts, as well as in architecture and modern design.  The epic tells the story of Rama, his brother Lakshmana and Rama’s wife Sita, who was kidnapped by the demon king Ravana. The main part of the epic is about the fight between Ravana and Rama, who wants to get his wife back. In this battle, Rama is supported by his brother and a monkey chief, Hanuman, with his armies.
Knowledge of the ''Ramayana'' in Southeast Asia can be traced back to the 5th century in stone inscriptions from Funan, the first Hindu kingdom in mainland Southeast Asia. An outstanding series of reliefs of the Battle of Lanka from the 12th century still exists at Angkor Wat in Cambodia, and Ramayana sculptures from the same period can be found at Pagan in Myanmar. Thailand’s old capital Ayutthya founded in 1347 is said to have been modelled on Ayodhya, Rama’s birthplace and setting of the ''Ramayana''.  New versions of the epic were written in poetry and prose and as dramas in Burmese, Thai, Khmer, Lao, Malay, Javanese and Balinese, and the story continues to be told in dance-dramas, music, puppet and shadow theatre throughout Southeast Asia. Most of these versions change parts of the story significantly to reflect the different natural environments, customs and cultures.
When mainland Southeast Asian societies embraced Theravada Buddhism, Rama began to be regarded as a Bodhisatta, or Buddha-to-be, in a former life. In this context, the early episodes of the story were emphasized, symbolising Rama’s Buddhist virtues of filial obedience and willing renunciation. Throughout the region, Hanuman enjoys a greatly expanded role; he becomes the king of the monkeys and the most popular character in the story, and is a reflection of all the freer aspects of life.
'''Cambodia'''
The ''Ramayana'' very early reached the ancient Hindu kingdoms (Funan, Chenla, Champa) in the territory of present-day Cambodia, southern Vietnam and eastern Thailand through contact with the south Indian kingdoms, but the oldest extant literary version, the ''Reamker'' in the Khmer language, appears to date from the 16th century.  It preserves closer links to Valmiki’s original than do the other Southeast Asian versions. The Rama story became a favourite theme for frescoes on temple walls and was the exclusive subject of the traditional Cambodian shadow play. The popular masked dance drama, lkhon khol, was based on certain episodes from the ''Ramayana'', and with Rama being regarded a former incarnation for the Buddha himself the story forms part of the repertoire of the Royal Ballet to the present day.
[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/04/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-1-cambodia-.html]
'''Thailand'''
The Thai version of the epic is known as the ''Ramakien''. The Rama story is thought to have been known to the Thais since at least the 13th century. It was adopted from older Khmer sources, hence the similarity to the Khmer title ''Reamker''. Various new versions of the story have been composed, often by royal authors, since the 16th and 17th centuries. However, large numbers of Thai manuscripts were lost with the destruction of Ayutthya in 1767, and the ''Ramakien'' known today was compiled only between 1785 and 1807 under the supervision of King Rama I (1785-1809). The famous reliefs depicting about 150 scenes from the ''Ramakien'' at Wat Phra Chetuphon (Wat Pho) in Bangkok date back to the early 19th century. Manuscript and mural paintings showing scenes from the ''Ramakien'' are particularly famous for their illustrations of the monkey armies. Best known are the mural paintings at the royal temple Wat Phra Kaeo in Bangkok. In King Rama I’s version of the ''Ramakien'' all names, places, traditions, and flora and fauna were adapted to a Thai context. In this form, the Rama story has become an epic of national character in Thailand, and it is very popular not only as a literary work, but also as a mask dance (khon) and even TV drama. It has been re-published many times in the form of children’s and juvenile literature, and characters from the ''Ramayana'' have featured on series of postal stamps and trading cards. The title of Rama constantly re-occurs in the royal genealogies of Thailand.
Phralak – the Thai and Lao name of Lakshmana, Rama’s brother – served Rama and Sita reverently and played an important role in the war with Ravana. In the Thai and Lao traditions, he is a symbol of brotherly love, loyalty and commitment. He gave his life in order to protect Rama’s integrity and Ayodhya from an evil curse.
'''Laos'''
The Lao version of the ''Ramayana'' is known as ''Phra Lak Phra Ram'' (or ''Pha Lak Pha Lam'' since in modern Lao R is often replaced by L), the title referring to both the brothers Lakshmana and Rama. Sometimes it is also called ''Phra Ram sadok'' (Rama Jataka) as it is widely believed that Rama was a former incarnation of a Buddha-to-be. The Rama story featured in many mural paintings and wood relief carvings on temple doors and windows. It was also one of the favourite themes in the repertoire of the Lao Royal Ballet until 1975, and this tradition has been revived since 2002 by the Royal Ballet Theatre of Luang Prabang. Numerous palm-leaf manuscripts from all regions of Laos containing shorter versions of the Lao ''Ramayana'', ''Lam Pha Lam'', show that the story was very popular all over the country in urban centres as much as in rural areas. These versions were created in order to be sung by a Mor Lam, a traditional expert singer who can melodically recite lengthy poems and epic literature while being accompanied by a Khaen (bamboo mouth organ).
[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/04/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-2-thailand-and-laos.html]
'''Burma'''
The oral tradition of the ''Ramayana story'' in Burma is believed to date as far back as the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-77), the founder of the first Burmese empire at Pagan. Documented in Ava by the end of the 13th century, the Rama story – known as ''Rama Zatdaw'' in Burmese – continued to be transmitted orally from generation to generation up till the 16th century.  In the 18th century, the ''Ramayana'' had come to be regarded as a noble saga even among Buddhist monks. The story of Rama, based on the oral traditions of Old Pagan, may have been committed to writing between the 16th and the 18th centuries, in verse and prose as well as in dramatic form, but the first known written Burmese version of the ''Ramayana'' is ''Rama Thagyin'' (Songs from the ''Ramayana''), compiled by U Aung Phyo in 1775. The popularity of the ''Ramayana'' in Burma reached its zenith in the first half of the 19th century, when the story of Rama was depicted in a continuous series of 347 stone relief sculptures at the pagoda of Maha Loka Marazein of Thakhuttanai built in 1849 during the reign of King Bagan (1846-1853), of the Konbaung Dynasty. Thakin Min Mi, the Chief Queen of Singu Min 1776-1781, was a poet and writer who encouraged the performance of the ''Ramayana''. The Rama play was performed on the stage in full splendour in the royal palace beginning with the reign of King Bodawpaya (1782-1819). During the reign of Tharrawaddy Min (1837-1846) and his son Pagan Min (1847-1853) the ''Rama Zatdaw'' regained its popularity and became established as part of traditional court entertainment. In the 19th century stage performances and marionette performances of the drama of the ''Ramayana'' were presented in the palace by royal troupes of professional artists. During the reign of Mindon (1853-1878), the Rama Zatdaw was rarely performed in its entirety, with favourite episodes only usually being presented to please the court. The king’s minister Myawady Mingyi U Sa converted the ''Ramayana Jataka'' into a typical Burmese classical drama, and he also composed theme music and songs for its performance. Ever since then, ''Ramayana'' performances have been very popular in Burmese culture, and ''Yama zat pwe'' (dramatic performances of the Rama story) marionette stage shows are often held. Scenes from the Ramayana can also be found as motifs or design elements in Burmese lacquerware and wood carvings.  By the late 19th century, the ''Ramayana'' story was being printed in Burmese.
[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/05/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-3-burma.html]
'''Indonesia'''
That the ''Ramayana'' was already well known in Java by the end of the ninth century is evident from the magnificent series of reliefs carved into the walls of the temples of Prambanan in central Java around 900 AD.  However, the the first literary version in Old Javanese, the ''Ramayana Kakawin'', appears to date from a century later. It is based not directly on Valmiki’s ''Ramayana'' but on a later Indian poetical version, the so-called ''Bhattikavya'', a Sanskrit poem written by Bhatti (6/7th century), which both tells the story and illustrates the rules of Sanskrit grammar.  The first five cantos are a fairly exact translation, while the remainder is a much freer version. With the spread of Islam across Java from the fifteenth century onwards, the strongly Indianised Old Javanese culture and traditions retreated eastwards to the island of Bali, which today remains the only majority Hindu region outside India.  Nearly all Old Javanese literary compositions or kakawin survived only in Bali, although their stories continued to be known in Java through the shadow-puppet tradition. The late 18th-century renaissance of literature at the central Javanese courts of Surakarta and Yogyakarta saw the rewriting of the ''Ramayana Kakawin'' in modern Javanese.  In Bali, the story of Rama still plays a central part in the religious and cultural life of the island, and in the twentieth century became a popular subject for illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts. The tradition of shadow-puppet theatre seems to have been in existence in Java for at least a thousand years, and the stories which are used in the wayang kulit shadow puppet theatre are taken from the Indian epics of the ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata''. While the characters and the plots remain basically Indian, the way the stories have been developed over the past 1000 years in the oral dramatic tradition reflects Javanese culture rather than Indian. The iconography of the shadow puppet theatre – with heads in profile, angular shoulders, slim torsos and pivoted limbs – has strongly influenced Javanese manuscript illustration.
'''Malaysia'''
In the Malay Muslim courts of the archipelago, literary traditions now transmitted using Arabic script continued to reflect deep-seated Hindu-Buddhist roots.  The Malay version of the ''Ramayana'', ''Hikayat Seri Rama'', is believed to have been committed to writing between the 13th and 15th centuries.  One of the oldest Malay manuscripts in this country – and probably the oldest known illuminated Malay manuscript – is a copy of the ''Hikayat Seri Rama'' now held in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, which was in the possession of Archbishop Laud in 1635.  The Malay version originated not from the classical ''Ramayana'' of Valmiki, but from popular oral versions widely spread over southern India. 
As attested to in media ranging from the great 7th-century ''Ramayana'' stone pedestal in the Cham temple at Tra Kieu in Vietnam, to 20th-century performances of the ''Ceritera Seri Rama'' in the wayang Siam shadow puppet theatre of Kelantan and 21st-century Indonesian comics, the ''Ramayana'' has retained its position as a literary classic in Southeast Asia through the centuries.
[http://britishlibrary.typepad.co.uk/asian-and-african/2014/05/the-ramayana-in-southeast-asia-4-indonesia-and-malaysia.html]

Latest revision as of 13:02, 23 August 2016

Rama (date uncertain) was a legendary north Indian king whose story is told in the many versions of the Ramayana and also in the Mahabharata. It is obvious that both these texts are multi-layered in the sense that earlier myths of indeterminate age have been incorporated into the core texts as they developed into the texts we know today, reaching the developed text c.200-100BCE.

Traditionally the Ramayana is regarded as having been compiled by Valmiki. Another, much later, rendering of the Ram story is the Ramcaritmanas written in Hindi by Tulsidas.

Modern historians regard these classic Indian texts as chronicles of the wars fought, essentially over resources, between city-states on the fertile Gangetic plain of northern India in the first millennium BCE, especially in the period 700-100BCE. In this context Rama is portrayed as the king of Ayodhya who marries Sita, the adopted daughter of King Janaka of Mithila or Videha sometime in the period 700-500BCE.

Traditional scholars assign considerably earlier dating to the Ramayana and much of the Mahabharata, and regard King Rama as having lived as early as five thousand years ago, or c.3000BCE.

There are many versions of the Ramayana. The late A.K.Ramanujan counted 300+ in 1987; and there have been more since, notably the idiosyncratic cartoon film, Sita's Blues.

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